The fact that the original sovereignty of the Hebrew state, though by the free consent and suffrage of the people, was vested in Jehovah, distinguished this government from all others ever known among men. This circumstance would naturally lead us to look for some peculiarity of organization in the political structure. Nor does the history of the government, contained in the writings of its founder, disappoint such expectation. This organic peculiarity appears in the oracle of Jehovah, as an essential part of the civil constitution.
We have already seen that there was a strong theocratic element in the Israelitish constitution--so strong, indeed, that the government has been commonly called a theocracy. In what manner and through what agencies, did this element in the government make itself practically felt? The general answer to this question is: It was by means of the oracle of Jehovah. With the view of shedding, if possible, some light on this obscure but interesting point, I propose to inquire briefly into the nature and functions of the Hebrew oracle, to institute a comparison between it and the oracles of pagan antiquity, and to vindicate the wisdom and benevolence of such an institution, against the sneers and sophistries of infidelity, by showing its admirable adaptation to the infant state of the world and the church.
The oracle played a conspicuous and most important part in the establishment and administration of the Jewish theocracy. That incomparable summary of the Mosaic code, and of all moral duty--the Decalogue--was uttered, amid terrific thunderings and lightnings, from the mysterious symbol of the Divinity, in an articulate voice, which reached every ear, and penetrated every heart, and awed every understanding of the mighty multitude that crowded around the base of mount Sinai. So also all the rest of the political, civil, moral, and religious laws of the Hebrews were dictated by the oracle, though they were afterward, as observed by Dr. Spring, in his "Discourses on the obligations of the World to the Bible," passed upon and adopted by the legal assemblies of the nation. The oracle, in the form of the cloudy pillar, regulated the motions of the Israelitish armies: "For when the cloud was taken up from the tabernacle, the children of Israel journeyed; and when the cloud rested, there the children of Israel pitched their tents; at the command of Jehovah they journeyed, at the command of Jehovah they pitched."1 How far the oracle directed the military affairs of the Hebrews plainly appears in the history of the Canaanitish wars, and particularly in the story of the siege and capture of Jericho.2 In the earlier periods of the commonwealth, the oracle was constantly appealed to on questions of civil and ecclesiastical law, in settling principles of state policy, and generally in affairs of moment, appertaining to the pubic administration. "In the time of Moses," observes Michaelis, "the oracle was unquestionably very conspicuous. God himself gave laws to the Israelites; decided difficult points of justice; was constantly visible in the pillar of cloud and fire; and inflicted punishments, not according to the secret procedure of providence, but in the most manifest manner." The constitution of the Hebrew judges, both higher and lower, the election of civil rulers, the cognizance of many causes, some in the first instance, and others on appeal, were branches of the sovereignty of Jehovah, as King of Israel. The use of the oracle in deciding difficult cases in law is the more worthy of note, as it serves to explain the constitution with respect to appeals. It was thus that the oracle decided the question, how persons defiled by a dead body should keep the Passover.3 Thus also the oracle determined the question of female succession, in the case of the daughters of Zelophehad.4 And thus it was the oracle, again, which declared he punishment of Sabbath breaking.5 Hence it may be seen that the last resort both in civil and criminal cases, especially when new and difficult questions were involved, was in the oracle, and not in the opinion of the high priest alone, nor of the judge alone, nor of both conjointly with the senate and congregation, unless they were fully agreed. If a difficulty arose, the last appeal was to the oracle, in whose decision the high priest did not give his private judgment, but the oracle itself gave final judgment in the case.
The person charged with consulting the oracle was the high priest. An objector may here ask, "Did not this open the door to corruption? Might not an ambitious pontiff abuse such a trust to unrighteous ends?" This difficulty may be best met by explaining to whom the consultation of the oracle was permitted, the occasions on which it might be consulted, and the probable manner of the consultation.
The oracle could not be interrogated by any mere private individual, not even by the high priest himself in his personal capacity. This was permitted only to the chief magistrate or other high functionary of the government. The occasions on which the advice of the oracle could be asked, must be of a public nature. The matter of consultation must relate to a question of public policy, of public morals, or of religious faith. Neither could the consultation take place in a clandestine way. The person proposing the question to the high priest remained with him during the ceremony. Josephus affirms that any person who chose might be present on such occasions.6
This would be an effectual guard against collusion and an ample guarantee for the fairness of the transaction. The office of the high priest, in this particular, was that of a mediator, or middle man. He was herein simply the channel of communication between the Hebrew state and its Divine head. It is remarkable that there is not an instance on record, in the Jewish annals of a high priest, who abused this trust to unworthy objects.
The opinion of learned and judicious authors, as to the manner of taking the sense of the oracle, is this: The high priest clothed in his pontifical garments, and having on the breastplate of judgment, in which were the mysterious urim and thummim, symbolical of the clearness and fulness of the oracular responses, presented himself before the veil of the tabernacle, over against the mercy seat, the immediate residence of the Divine presence. The magistrate who came to consult the oracle stood directly behind him and propounded the question, which was repeated by the priest. The answer was returned in an audible voice, in terms explicit, direct, and unambiguous. This explains the reason why the holy of holies, where the mercy seat stood, is so often called the oracle. It was because from thence God returned answers to those who came to ask counsel of him, on behalf of the public conscience or the public administration.
That the responses were returned in an articulate voice, seems probable from several expressions of holy writ. When the ten commandments were given on Sinai, it is said, that "God spake all these words."7 In regard to the subsequent laws, it is declared that "Jehovah spake unto Moses, saying."8 When Moses went into the tabernacle to learn the divine will, it is recorded of him that "he heard the voice of one speaking to him from off the mercy seat."9 Similar forms of expression are used in reference to the like occasions in after ages, from all which the conclusion seems warranted that the responses of the Hebrew oracle were rendered in an audible voice, and without secrecy, craft, or ambiguity of any kind.10
I have said above that the person charged with consulting the oracle was the high priest. The observation, however, ought not to be omitted, that there were two ways in which the oracle expressed its will, in one of which the high priest had no share. This was by a voice from the shekinah directly. It was in this way that the Ten Commandments were given, in which case the oracle was heard by the whole Hebrew nation. In this manner, also, the other civil laws given at Sinai were dictated to Moses. What the exact nature of the phenomenon called the shekinah was, we cannot with certainty determine. "We can only say, that it appears to have been a concentrated glowing brightness, a preternatural splendor, an effulgent something, which was appropriately expressed by the term glory; but whether, in philosophical strictness, it was material or immaterial, it is probably impossible to determine."
But notwithstanding this, it still remains true that the ordinary mode of consulting the oracle was through the high priest, by urim and thummim. It is not material to the illustration of this part of the Israelitish constitution that we should know precisely what these terms mean. Yet it may gratify the reader to be informed of the several opinions entertained by the learned on this point. All that the scripture says concerning urim and thummim is that they were something put by Moses into the breastplate of the high priest. The breastplate was a piece of cloth doubled, of a span square, in which were twelve precious stones, set in sockets of gold, and having the names of the twelve tribes of Israel engraved on them. In this, then, the urim and thummim were placed. Four principle opinions have obtained as to what they were. The first is that they were two small images, which, enclosed within the fold of the breast plate, gave out the oracular answers. This is the idea of Philo Judaeus, in which he has been followed by later writers. But it is too heathenish a conceit to be for a moment entertained. It has been well characterized as "a Talmudical camel, which no one in his wits can ever swallow." A second opinion is that the urim and thummim consisted in a peculiar radiance, or shining light, with which certain of the letters, engraven on the breastplate, were invested, when a question had been put, so that these luminous characters, being properly arranged, gave the answer to the inquiry. This was the notion of Josephus. Dr. Prideaux has triumphantly refuted it, but his answer is too long to be inserted here. A third opinion is that of Michaelis, in which he is followed by Jahn. These writers think that the urim and thummim were simply a sacred box. They suppose it probable that three stones were used, one of them marked with an affirmative, a second with a negative, and a third blank; and that Moses commanded these to be kept within the doubling of the breastplate of the priest. This of course would require the question always to be put in such a way that it could be answered with a simple Yes or No. But there are various responses in the scriptures inconsistent with the truth of this theory, especially that contained in 2 Samuel 5:23-24, where explicit and detailed directions are given. The fourth opinion is that of Prideaux, who thinks that by urim and thummim we are not to understand anything visible and corporeal, but only a divine virtue and power, given to the breastplate in consecration, of obtaining oracular answers from God, whenever counsel was asked of him by the high priest in the prescribed manner. Amid this conflict of opinion, one thing seems sufficiently evident, that the answers were rendered in an audible voice, and that the breastplate, bearing the names of the twelve tribes, invested the high priest with his true representative character, and thus enabled him successfully to ask counsel of God.
In comparing the Hebrew oracle with the oracles of paganism, my remarks will embrace the period of their respective institution; the times, occasions, and conditions of consulting them; the machinery of consultation; and the nature of the responses uttered by each.
Infidel writers have represented the Hebrew oracle as a mere imitation of those of pagan institution--a graft from one system of imposture into another, but little better. Morgan says that "while the Jews were in Egypt, they had been dazzled by the infallible declarations of Jupiter Ammon." Sir Isaac Newton, however, places the birth of Ammon more than 400 years after the Exodus of Israel out of Egypt. These are the words of this illustrious chronologist: "The year before Christ 1002, Sesac reigned in Egypt. He erected temples and oracles to his father in Thebes, Ammonia, and Ethiopia; and thereby caused his father to be worshiped as a god in those countries. This was the original of the worship of Jupiter Ammon, and the first mention of oracles I meet with in profane history. The Greeks, in their oracles, imitated the Egyptians; for the oracle of Dodona, which was the oldest in Greece, was set up by an Egyptian woman after the example of the oracle at Thebes." Thus it appears, according to this high chronological authority, that, instead of the Jewish oracle being an imitation of the pagan oracles, the reverse was the fact. The latter drew their original from the former.
The Hebrew oracle could be consulted at all times when the occasions of the state required, the Grecian only on particular days of a particular month in the year. It is obvious to remark what an advantage this gave to the priests of those lying divinities to anticipate the questions to be proposed and to frame skillful and deceptive replies.
The Hebrew oracle could be consulted only by some high public functionary, and when questions of moment, relating to the government of the republic, demanded resolution. The Grecian oracles refused not their utterance to any persons, nor upon any occasion, provided only that the fee was sufficiently ample to cause them to break silence.
This leads me to remark upon another distinction between the two institutions. No money was ever received for consulting the Jewish oracle. The offer of it would have been an insult to him whose voice was heard in its responses. The Grecian oracles were sources of vast revenues to the priests. The wealth of the Delphian oracle exceeded that of the most opulent states and princes. Its treasury blazed with uncounted jewels and groaned beneath the masses of gold and silver that filled its capacious vaults.
Another point of difference appears in the machinery of consultation and the character of the responses. Nothing can be more simple than the method of consulting the divine oracle, nothing less ambiguous than its answers. But what endless mystery, and mummery, and cumbrous rites of divination accompanied the responses of the heathen oracles. These were always so contrived as to be susceptible of a double interpretation. In proof of this, the reader's attention is directed to the response of the Delphian oracle to Croesus, the powerful monarch of the Lydian empire, respecting the issue of his war with Cyrus. Its purport was that he should overturn a great empire and that the Persians would not conquer him till they had a mule for their prince. History has recorded the result. The wily priests had well considered their answer. They knew nothing of the issue. How could they? But they must clutch the treasures of Lydia's richest sovereign. To this end, they must flatter his pride. And they must maintain the credit of their oracle, whichever way fortune might decide the contest. With demoniac cunning did they frame the response to answer all these ends. When the unhappy Lydian, lured to his ruin by their lying flatteries, dared to reproach them with their deception, with insulting scorn they replied, "Ungrateful fool! you have overturned a great empire, even that over which you reigned, and your throne and scepter have been wrested from you by the mule of our oracle, even Cyrus, who, his father being a Persian and his mother a Median, fills the measure of its import." Behold the system! Behold the commentary! Each worthy of the other, and both of that infernal craft and policy in which they had their origin. One hardly knows against whom to feel the greater indignation, whether against the contrivers of such a system of delusion, or the bold blasphemer, who dares to liken it to that oracle of eternal truth, whose immaculate responses were fitly symbolized by a legend which signifies, "Lights and Perfections."
Infidels have indulged in a superabundance of malignant and silly ridicule over this divine oracle, but with their usual want of inquiry and reflection. I admit that it is an extraordinary institution. I admit that it is altogether without a parallel in the history of the world. But this is no argument against either the fact or the wisdom of it. No other civil society has ever been formed for precisely the same objects, nor existed under exactly the same circumstances. No other civil polity ever proposed, as its main end, the overthrow of idolatry, the preservation of true religion in the world, and the education of mankind for a more spiritual and universal dispensation of grace. Add to this, that the human race was then, as it were, in its infancy and nonage. It had but few abstract ideas. It was, for the most part, confined in its mental operations to sensible objects. In such a state of things, philosophy itself would teach us to look for just such an institution as the Hebrew oracle. And when we find it making its appearance in the Jewish church, enlightened reason is prepared to exclaim in the language of revelation, "Oh the depths of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God."
The oracle was the institution of all others, adapted to the mental condition, habits, and needs of the Hebrew people. It operated as a salutary check to the ignorance and rashness of both rulers and people. By powerfully impressing the imagination through the senses, it supplied the place of a strong, realizing conception of an infinite and omnipresent spirit, which was wanting in that minority and pupilage of the nation. It served to detach their affections and their trust from the pompous and alluring idolatries of their heathen neighbors. This sensible manifestation of the Deity--the cloud of glory shooting up to mid-heaven in a column of massy splendor, or resting in luminous folds ever the mercy-seat in the holy of holies--is so far from being incredible, that, while scripture affirms its truth, reason and philosophy declare its expediency. The divine oracle with its attendant visible glories--the ark, the mercy-seat, the cherubim, the luminous cloud, the breastplate of judgment, with its mystical urim and thummim, and the audible responses of the Deity--formed a school, designed, with admirable wisdom and condescension, for tutoring the infant intellect and heart of the world, and training them up to a full spiritual maturity and strength. "To pour contempt, therefore, on these extraordinary appearances, as absurd and romantic fables, would be as unphilosophical and as ungrateful, as it would be for a child, when arrived at manhood, to censure and despise those condescending methods, by which parental wisdom and love had molded and carried forward his childhood to manly vigor and understanding." Let us not be guilty of the folly, the injustice, we may say, of measuring the intellectual and religious wants of a comparatively rude and infant state of society, by those of our own more cultivated, more enlightened, more spiritual, more manly, and Christian age of the world. And while we admire the beauties of the dawn, and adore the wisdom and benevolence of those early pencilings of spiritual light, let us rejoice and be grateful that the full-orbed sun has arisen upon us in all his splendor.
"In the oracle, then," to conclude this chapter in the words of Lowman, "we see a considerable part of the Hebrew constitution to direct the councils of the united tribes, the political wisdom of which is seldom remarked in the civil government of that nation. There was a congregation of all Israel, or assembly of the people, that all things might be done with general consent. There was a senate of wise and able persons, to prepare things by previous deliberation and consultation, that things might not be concluded rashly in a popular assembly, before they were maturely considered and examined by men of wisdom and experience. There was a judge to assemble the states-general on proper occasions, to preside in their assemblies, and to command the armies of the united provinces, and to see the national resolutions duly executed. And finally, here was an oracle, which was to be consulted by the high priest on great occasions, that no rash resolutions of the people, senate, or judge, might be brought into execution, in cases of moment and difficulty; but they were to ask counsel of God or to obtain the royal assent of Jehovah, as king of Israel, by his oracle. This was a wise provision, to preserve a continual sense in the Hebrew nation of the principal design of their constitution, to keep them from idolatry and to the worship of the one true God, as their immediate protector; and that their security and prosperity depended upon adhering to his counsels and commands."
NOTES:
1 Numbers 9:17-18. 2 Joshua 6. 3 Numbers 9:6-10. 4 Numbers 27:1-9. 5 Numbers 15:32-36. 6 Numbers 27:21. 7 Exodus 20:1. 8 Exodus passim. 9 Numbers 7:89. 10 Numbers 9:9; Judges 1:1-2, 20:18,23,28; 1 Samuel 10:23; and many other places.
